Institutional Racism and Racial Discrimination in the U.S. Health Care System Essay Example for Free

Institutional Racism and Racial Discrimination in the U.S. Health Care System Essay Institutional racism and racial discrimination in the U.S. health care system has been part of a long continuum dating back over 400 years. After hundreds of years of active discrimination, efforts were made to admit minorities into the mainstream health system but these efforts were flawed. Colin Gordon in his book Dead on Arrival portrays a very strong stance towards this issue when he states, â€Å"The American welfare state has always been, at root, a Jim Crow welfare state – disdainful of citizenship claims of racial minorities, deferential to a southern-controlled Congress, and leery of the racial implications of universal social programs† (172). It is evident that throughout the history of U.S. health care that race has shaped health provisions in a number of ways, most noticeably in private and public health care institutions. Gordon throughout his books discusses the ways in which institutional racism, specifically in the field of healthcare, has manifested itself throughout history. One of the most prominent manifestations of institutional racism in the healthcare field comes to light when examining past (and sometimes present) policies regarding admission (to healthcare facilities) and discrimination of minorities. It is evident when observing the adoption, administration, and implementation of these policies in the past that they were purposefully constructed to be exclusive of minority citizens (specifically African Americans and Latinos). Gordon gives an example of such policies in 1939 under the Social Security reforms. In the formative years of the New Deal southerners in Congress pushed for and won for the exclusion of agricultural and domestic labor from coverage under the National Recovery, Agricultural Adjustment, Social Security, National Labor Relations, and Fair Labor Standards act, this affectively excluded 90 percent of the southern black workforce (185). The implications of this act of agricultural exclusion are most clearly evident in the South and Southwest—regions whose economies were dominated by agriculture, who agriculture systems were peculiarly labor intensive, and whose agricultural labor markets were organized around low wages, tenancy, harsh legal controls, and violence. Gordon argues that segregation  persisted in medicine and hospitals longer than in any other public institution or facility partly due to the fact that Southern Congressmen pushed for local control of any federal expenditure; and later on this pushed Southern and Southwestern leaders into a partnership with doctors, employers, and insurers to keep racial minorities excluded from the health system. Southern interests led to a push for job-based private insurance, locally administered subsidies for hospital construction, and penurious charitable programs for those left behind, â€Å"southerners persistently worked to exclude African Americans from coverage, tap into federal funds without sacrificing local practices, and ensure that charity programs remained under local control† (174). Employment-based benefits, initially developed as a surrogate for national policy, was successful in leaving behind the majority of African Americans and Latinos due to the fact that they were grossly underrepresented in the unionized industrial economy, and in part because benefits such as these did not extend to casual or domestic or agricultural workers. Private health benefits came to be looked upon by many Americans as a â€Å"wage of white-ness† (176). Federal agencies, both out of practical and political necessity, consistently surrendered control over federal funds and standards over to state and local administration, â€Å"states set their own standards for care and eligibility and controlled the pace and scope of federal matching funds. Local political and medical authorities wielded considerable informal power and discretion† (187). In 1948 the Brookings Institution published a book-length assault on health reform. The conclusion of this publication was that higher black mortality rates are â€Å"predominately the result of economic, cultural and social differences† although, the research for this publication based cost estimates off of the ordinary expenditures of white families and confined comparative mortality rates to the white population, this led to them to conclude that the United States was among one of the most healthful nations in the world (188). Seconding this conclusion and also asserting that higher rates of non-white mortality were due to such things as poor sanitation, housing, education, and the lack of ordinary individual and community common sense was the AMA. The partnership between these two organizations is evident. At the root of the hospital issue in the South was not only professional and patient segregation but also the way in which it was countenanced by federal efforts  to address the region’s dearth of facilities. What is shown here is the long-standing political strategy to try and appease reformers by granting federal funds but to simultaneously placate opponents by relinquishing control to local or private interests; federal aid to hospitals both in 1940 and under the 1946 Hill-Burton Act â€Å"avoided any commitment to maintenance: once built, hospitals would reflect local control and local custom† (193). This however did nothing to prevent segregation seeing as in order to be considered nondiscriminatory a hospital was only required to grant equal access to the portion of the hospital that was built with federal funds. Perhaps the most compelling public health issue during the formative years of the American welfare state was the dismal status of rural services. In places in the South and Southwest and the nation’s inner cities basic services such as a hospital, public health clinic, and a doctor accepting Medicaid patients did not even exist. Gordon offers the example in Mississippi in 1948, there were only five general hospital beds for every 100,000 blacks in the state—at a time when four beds for every 1,000 citizens was considered adequate (175). It is evident that health care in the twentieth century has been shaped by a myriad of â€Å"direct and indirect discrimination, strong southern interests and local administration, the uneasy intersection of public and private (job-based) benefits, and the sharp political distinctions routinely drawn between contributory and charitable programs† (209). According to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Despite the existence of civil rights legislation equal treatment and equal access are not a reality for racial/ethnic minorities and women in the current climate of the health care industry. Many barriers limit both the quality of health care and utilization for these groups, including discrimination. Importance of Health Care Access to comprehensive, quality health care services is important for the achievement of health equity and for increasing the quality of a healthy life for everyone. Access to health services entails the timely utilization of personal health services in an effort to achieve the best possible health outcomes. The utilization of and access to health care has many substantial impacts on a person’s life. A person’s overall physical, social and mental health statuses are all impacted by the ability to be examined and treated by a medical professional. Health care also plays a significant role in the prevention of disease and disability, the detection and treatment of health conditions and a person’s quality of life. A structured healthcare system assists in providing a foundation for a healthy lifestyle for both individuals and their families. Without access to healthcare, minor health issues have the potential to escalate either permanently affecting living standards or worse resulting in death. The health care sector also has an impact on the local economy. Health care facilities such as hospitals and nursing homes provide jobs and income to people in the community. As these employees spend their income in the community, a ripple spreads throughout the economy, creating additional jobs and income in other economic sectors. Also, providing healthcare may also be a business incentive to companies. Healthy employees can mean a healthier, happier, more productive workplace. A company’s decision to invest in and offer health care to their employees not only filters back into the economy but also may help them to recruit and retain quality employees, improve employee satisfaction, and reduce absenteeism due to sickness. Business that offer health insurance as part of their employee benefits package are probably better able to attract more qualified applicants than those who dont. Also, offering health insurance coverage is a way of keeping operating costs low, because employees are generally more apt to take a position at a lower salary when health insurance benefits are provided. This is because it generally costs more for someone to obtain an individual or family health insurance policy than to get employer-sponsored coverage, making the difference of a lower salary negotiable. Businesses offering health insurance can deduct their portion of the contribution toward their employee plan as a business expense and get a tax advantage. If the business is incorporated, the business owners insurance and the coverage paid for employees are deductible. Access to health care services and insurance plays a vital role in individual and families lives along side society as a whole.

Equality Between Men and Women in Modern Society vs. Ancient Greek Soci

In today's society, women hold a position equal to that of a man. However, this has not always been the case especially in the Ancient Greek society. In the society there were many rules and regulations for all, but in particular the women had it the hardest. Women were seen as insignificant characters in the Ancient Greek society. While the men†¦.women attained the most difficult job of all, bearing children. These women in the society had very little freedom, actually no freedom at all. Can you imagine being locked inside a house all day with the windows locked? In the Ancient Greek society, women were actually very important to keeping the society together and functioning. Men did not give them the credit they deserved. Thus dominant role of women portrayed in Ancient Greek mythology and artwork is in direct contrast to the more subservient role of women during the classical era in Greece. In today's society, women hold a position equal to that of a man. However, this has not always been the case especially in the Ancient Greek society. In the society there were many rules and re...

CompareandContrast Essay Microsoft vs Apple

Their products can last years like their laptops for example, but if you have a windows based laptop you need to replace it very year in order to keep up with technology. When talking about what to compare with these two companies I am going to focus on the logo, stocks, and their operating systems. Apple is a more consumer-based product, while Microsoft tends to reach out more towards businesses. Apple's logo is more classic and just a picture of an apple with a bite out of the apple. While Microsoft's is just the name Microsoft with four colored squares that look like a window.Microsoft looks like a combination of Google and Apple's design elements. Microsoft tries to use design elements from multiple companies in order to help them with the public. No more logo in technology is more known than Apple's. Microsoft has tried many times to rebind themselves. According to Matt Burns, Microsoft's logo is â€Å"simply me†, and I couldn't agree more (Burns, 2012, Para. 3). Microsof t has regained its position as the number 2 most valuable US company right behind Number 1 Apple. Apple is a maker of closed and proprietary Technology products.Apple has earned a commanding market value of 669 billion in comparison to Microsoft's 408 billion. Apple develops its in secret and unveils them to the public with presentations shown to people all over the world. Apple and Microsoft are in a dead heat this year with shares of Apple rising 21. 5% and Microsoft rising at 20. 3%. â€Å"During the intermediate term, it's a close battle, too. Shares of Apple are up 69. 8% over the past three years, just marginally ahead of the 63. 6% rise by Microsoft. (Karate, 2014, p. ) The edge goes to Apple; over the last five years Apple is up 314% compared to Microsoft 91 % gain. Contrary to popular belief prior to the phone 6 coming out, Microsoft outsold Apple on cellophanes. The trouble for Microsoft though is only 5. 8 million out of 36 million was smartness. Apple SO X and Microsoft Windows are two of the most used operating systems. When is comes to the operating systems Apple has more software bundled with their operating system than Microsoft. There are more titles available on the Windows platform. SO X has more offerings in music and video production.You can run windows non Mac, but you can't run SO X on windows. So you have the best of both worlds on an Apple computer. When it comes to security of the operating system a vicious program can change the system on windows without you even knowing it. When it comes to Apple, SO X added â€Å"sandbagging to improve protection against mallard and Trojan. † (â€Å"Apple vs.. Microsoft,† 2014, Para. 6) When it comes to viruses you have to buy additional software to protect it on a Microsoft operating system, but with Apple it comes built into their operating system.When you want to upgrade your operating system it is more affordable with Apple. If you wanted the newest operating system with Apple it would be free if you had the prior operating system, and with Microsoft it would cost 1 19. 99 for just the upgrade version. With Apple you can just install it from the App store, but with Microsoft you would have to go to a tore to purchase it. While SO X has the benefit off faster startup and higher performance, the graphics applications run faster on Windows.The question of what company is better in my opinion is Apple. All the hardware and software just works well together. Apple offers an absolutely flawless integration of hardware and software. Only with Apple do you get a system built by the same group who makes the operating system, the applications and the computer. The Apple operating system and its hardware make for a far more reliable, less troublesome environment than Windows. Microsoft just does not have a consistent, coherent and unified brand like Apple clearly does.

Americ Red, White, And Green - 1678 Words

America: Red, White, and Green. Weed, grass, and bud are all names for one of the most misunderstood plants in the world: marijuana. Through the use of government slandering propaganda and stereotyping, many people have tunnel vision when it comes to the controversial issue. Many view marijuana as a harmful drug, not realizing all of the economic, resourceful, and medical uses that can generate from it. These are the same people who want to keep marijuana illegal and out of the public s hands. Only in the past twenty years has marijuana made progress with the United States Government by legalizing medical and recreational marijuana in select states. Within this short time frame, several states have seen unmistakable results with the increase in state revenue, decrease in crime rates, and overall better living for its citizens. The states that have legalized marijuana are proving to be valuable examples to the other more conservative states that are being hesitant when it comes down t o legalization; â€Å"this summer, the Marijuana Policy Project, one of NORML s [National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws] allies, announced an ambitious goal: legalize marijuana in ten additional states, including California, by 2017† (Thomson-Deveaux). Due to medical and economical findings, public opinion on marijuana has drastically altered from general disapproval to acceptance; which can not only be useful for the citizen, but prove invaluable to the patient. For thousands of